British Empire (Red) & Mongolian empire (Blue) - By Amitchell125 - Own work, Link
Historical records speak of their leader as a merciful ruler but a ruthless enemy. His name, the name that brought hope to his allies and despair to his enemies, was Genghis Khan.
Genghis Khan introduced writing to the Mongols, promoted trade, and permitted all religions to be practiced freely. At the same time, he murdered millions of his enemies. According to a Persian scholar, once, he ordered 50,000 of his soldiers to kill 24 enemy citizens each. Thus, in one invasion alone, he killed almost 1.2 million people.
How could a single man rise from absolutely nothing to establish such a powerful empire and change the course of history? Read this biography of Genghis Khan to find out.
Where did the Mongols come from?
To understand who Genghis Khan was, we have to understand who the Mongols were and where they originated from. So, in this biography of Genghis Khan, we try to find out where the Mongols came from.
Xianbei
Until 221B.C., China was made up of several warring states. In 221B.C., Qin, one of these warring states, conquered the other warring states and established the first unified China. According to the standards of that time, the Chinese were a more developed civilization. They grew their own food, had their own writing system, built the Great Wall, and constructed bridges, roads, and canals. They even had an established system of governing people.
On the contrary, their neighbors in the North were nomadic people. One of these neighbors was the Xianbei. They lived in present-day Mongolia and Northeastern China. Unlike the Chinese, the Xianbei did not have a central city or a sound political structure. Instead, they had several khanates, which were small societies ruled by a leader called Khan. Their major occupation was rearing animals for their meat, milk, and skin, even though some Xianbei were farmers.
The Xianbei Tribes, when China was ruled by the Jin Dynasty (Ca. 300 A.D.) - By Thomas Lessman (Contact!) - self-made (For reference information, see the Map Source References section below.), CC BY-SA 3.0, Link
In the second century A.D., the different Xianbei tribes united to form the Xianbei state (also known as the Xianbei empire). However, within a century, the Xianbei state fragmented into several smaller tribes due to the lack of an able leader. One of those smaller tribes was the Shiwei.
Shiwei
According to the official history of the Tang Dynasty, which ruled China at that time, Shiwei were nomads too. They were mostly hunters and shepherds, who lived by breeding cattle, horses, and pigs. Some of them were even farmers. But their harvest wasn't good because the climate and soil didn't aid them much. They lived in wagons drawn by oxen. They were disunited, and hence, were not powerful. So, they often submitted to their powerful neighbors, like the Chinese, Turks, and the Khitans.
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Map of Mongolia depicting the location of the Shiwei tribes - By Khiruge - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Link
Their ruling system was hereditary, i.e., power passed from father to son. If the ruling family died, the bravest and the wisest person in the tribe was chosen as their next leader. They were further divided into many tribes. Between 550A.D. and 618A.D., there were only five groups of Shiwei tribes. But after 618A.D., this number grew to 20. One of these tribes that came into existence after 618A.D. was the Mengwu Shiwei tribe. After 907A.D., it came to be known as the Menggu, who were the ancestors of the Mongols. Even today, Mongolia is called Menggu in Chinese.
Khamog Mongols
The Menggu, which started as a small tribe in the seventh century, began to grow eventually. By the twelfth century, the core Mongolian tribes joined hands to form a federation called the Khamog Mongols. But they were not the only Mongolian tribe in the Mongolian plateau. They were surrounded by other Mongolian tribal federations like the Tatars, the Merkits, the Naimans, and the Keraites. They spoke the same language and had the same traditions as some of these tribes. Yet, they did not have good relationships with them. This was partly due to the Chinese. Therefore, the Khamog Mongols were constantly engaged in warfare with their neighbors and the Chinese.
The 5 Mongolian tribal federations (Ca. 1207A.D.) - By Khiruge - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Link
The Khamog Mongols consisted of three main clans. Their Khan was chosen from one of these clans. The name of their first Khan was Khabul Khan. The Chinese, who considered the five Mongolian tribes as barbarians, did not want them to unite. So, they incited conflicts between these tribes. They also kept shifting their support from one tribe to another to prevent one tribe from becoming too powerful. When Khabul Khan became the leader of the Khamog Mongols, they shifted their support to the Tatars and killed Khabul Khan. Later, they shifted their support to Keraites to prevent Tatars from becoming too powerful.
The fourth Khan of the Khamog Mongols was Yesugei. He was an able leader. But he was blinded by the beauty of a girl called Hoelun, the wife of Merkits' chief. So, when she was going to Mergid's camp after her marriage, Yesugei kidnapped her. He made her his Chief wife, which meant that only her sons could be Yesugei's heirs. He had five children with Holeun, four sons and one daughter. Their first son was named Temüjin, who would later become Genghis Khan.
Biography of Genghis Khan - Early Life
Birth
Due to the lack of accurate historical records, the year of Temujin's birth is not clear. He might have been born in 1155, 1162, or 1167. His father named him Temüjin after the Tatar chief he had just captured. According to 'The Secret History of the Mongols,' the oldest surviving Mongol literary work, Temüjin was born holding a blood clot in his hands. In Mongol tradition, it was a sign that showed he was destined to become a great ruler.
Father's death
While growing up, Temüjin had a troubled childhood. His father Yesugei had arranged a marriage for him with a girl called Börte from the neighboring Khongirad tribe. So, when Temüjin was nine years old, Yesugei delivered him to the Khongirad tribe. Temüjin would have to serve in that tribe for three years until he reached the marriageable age of 12.
After leaving Temüjin at his bride's home, Yesugei went to a marriage. However, at this marriage, he was poisoned by the Tatars, who were Mongol's enemies. He then returned to his tribe and died three days later. When Temüjin found out about his father's death, he was shocked. But since he was the rightful heir to his father, he returned home to claim his position as the chief of Khamog Manghols. But his tribe considered him too weak to take up leadership. So, at the insistence of the Taychiuts, a rival clan in his tribe, his tribe refused his claim and abandoned his family. Hence, his family was left unprotected.
Extreme poverty
Yesugei had two wives. With his first wife, Hoelun, Temüjin's mother, he had five children. With his second wife, he had two sons Behter and Belügtei. After Yesugei died and their clan abandoned them, Hoelun took charge of the family.
For the first few years after Yesugei's death, their family lived in extreme poverty. They couldn't even get their hands on the normal nomad diet of mutton and horse milk. Initially, Hoelun had to gather roots, millet, and wild fruits to feed the family, as their sons were too young to gather food. But as their sons grew up, they learned hunting and fishing. They brought home fish and small animals that the family could feed on.
Killing his half-brother
Hoelun always advised her sons to be co-operative and stay united. But since they were kids, the sibling rivalry between Temüjin and his older half-brother Behter was fierce. As the eldest male in the group, Behter tried to control his younger half-brothers. He also tried to claim Temüjin's mother as his wife since she was his stepmother and not his own mother. Moreover, Behter and Belügtei also snatched the animals that Temüjin and his brothers hunted and ate them, leaving Temüjin and his brothers to starve. So, annoyed, when he was 14 years old, Temüjin and his brother surrounded Behter from both sides. Then they shot arrows at him and killed him.
Even though Temüjin's mother was furious at his actions and reprimanded him, his stepmother and his other half-brother Belügtei bore no ill-will towards Temüjin. They continued living with them. His other half-brother Belügtei even became Temüjin's general after he grew up. He was also a trusted messenger and an able counsel for Temüjin. Belügtei lived to be very old. According to some historical records, he was between 90 and 110 years old by the time he died. This would have made him one of the oldest men alive on earth due to the short life-span of humans at that time.
Natural Charisma of a leader
Thus, Temüjin's early life was not easy. Since his father's death, he struggled to keep himself alive. But despite living in extreme poverty, he had a quality that great rulers often possessed. He had the power to attract supporters through the sheer force of his personality. Two incidents that happened in his early life stand testimony to this fact.
Temüjin gets captured
In 1177A.D., the Taychiut, the rival clan in his tribe, raided the place where he lived. Instead of killing him, the Taychiut clan made Temüjin wear a wooden collar and kept him in their camp. One night, the Taychiut were feasting and left Temüjin improperly guarded. Using this opportunity, Temüjin knocked the guard down using his wooden collar and escaped. One of the Taychiut clan members saw Temüjin escape. However, he was very much impressed by the fire in Temüjin's eyes. So, instead of catching Temüjin, he helped him escape at the risk of his own life. The rest of the Taychiut clan searched him all night, but they couldn't find him. This escape earned Temüjin a reputation.
Thieves steal Temüjin's horses
In another completely unrelated incident, thieves came and stole eight of the nine horses Temüjin's family owned. So, Temüjin took the only remaining horse and pursued them. On the way, he met Bo'orchu, a young stranger. He asked Bo'orchu if he had seen the thieves. Immediately Bo'orchu left what he was doing, gave Temüjin a fresh horse, and set on with him to find the thieves. They eventually found the horses. During this chase, Bo'orchu was impressed by the fire in Temüjin's eyes and recognized him as a great leader. So, he renounced his loyalty to his clan and his own family and started accompanying Temüjin as his follower. Bo'orchu and Chilaun, the son of the guard who helped Temüjin escape from the Taychiut, eventually became Temüjin's generals.
The turning point in Temüjin's life
In 1178A.D., about seven years after his father was poisoned, Temüjin went to find Börte, his bride. When he reached Börte's tribe, Börte's father honored their agreement and got them married. After the marriage, Temüjin, with his father-in-law's permission, took Börte and her mother to his tent.
The fateful incident - A kidnap
When Temüjin's father, Yesugei, was young, he had kidnapped the wife of the Merkit tribe's chief. The woman he kidnapped was Temüjin's mother. Even though many years had passed since that incident, and Yesugei was now dead, the Merkits had not forgotten it. They wanted to exact revenge for that incident. So, soon after Temüjin's marriage, they kidnapped Temüjin's wife Börte. Then they gave her to one of their warriors as a gift. Temüjin was heart-broken by this incident and wanted to retrieve his wife.
Forming alliances
Several years before this incident, Yasugei and Toghrul had taken an oath to remain as close as blood brothers. This Toghrul was now the Khan of the Keraite tribe and the most powerful Mongol prince. So, Temüjin decided to meet Toghrul, renew his friendship, and ask for help to retrieve Börte. But Temüjin had nothing to give him, except the black sable jacket that he had gotten as dowry from Börte's father. So, he gave the black sable jacket to Toghrul as a gift. In exchange, Toghrul gave him about 20,000 men and persuaded Jamukha, Temüjin's childhood friend, to provide him an army as well.
Together, they raided the Merkit camp. In the ensuing fight, around 300 Merkits were killed. The Merkit wives were distributed to the warriors, and the children were taken as slaves. Börte was found the same evening. After being separated from Temüjin for eight months, she had united with him once again. Thus, Börte's kidnap became the event that transformed Temüjin's life and pointed him on the path to becoming a conqueror.
Soon after the rescue, Börte gave birth to their first son, Jochi. But since she had been held captive for eight months, doubts about the legitimacy of Jochi started to arise. Several people believed that Jochi could actually be the son of Börte's captor. But Temüjin paid no heeds to the words of such people and raised Jochi as his son. Börte later gave birth to three more sons - Chagatai, Ögedei, Tolui, and several daughters. Moreover, Temüjin had many more children with his other wives. But since Börte was his chief wife, only her sons had the right to become Temüjin's heirs.
Temüjin becomes Temüjin Khan
After Temüjin attacked the Merkits, they were defeated utterly. The Merkits who survived ran for their lives and dispersed themselves throughout the Mongolian plateau. But at the same time, due to the attack, Temüjin's reputation as a warrior rose rapidly. Many people saw him as an able general and not the ruthless ruler he would later become. So, they became his loyal followers.
Temüjin and Jamukha
After the raid on the Merkits, Temüjin's family lived with the tribe of Jamukha. Jamukha was a Khan of a small tribe and Temüjin's childhood friend. Temüjin and Jamukha had sworn to be brothers till death. So, when Temüjin asked for help to retrieve his wife from the Merkits, Jamukha honored the friendship and helped Temüjin. But their friendship did not last for long. Just one and a half years after the rescue, Tamüjin and Jamukha parted ways. The exact reason for it is not clear. Maybe it was because they both had the same aim of becoming the ruler of the Mongolian plateau. Maybe it was because Jamukha exerted his influence on Temüjin by trying to control him. Or it was because they did not see eye-to-eye on whom to share the spoils of war with. But whatever the reason was, it led to their separation.
After they split ways, both Jamukha and Temüjin started gaining followers and allies. Jamukha supported the traditional Mongolian aristocratic method. He promoted warriors based on their family nobility and shared the spoils of war with aristocrats and royal families. On the contrary, Temüjin promoted warriors based on merit and shared the spoils of war with his warriors and their families. As a result, Temüjin was able to attract a broader range of followers, many of whom belonged to the lower class.
Becoming the Khan of the Khamog Mongols
After the death of Yesugei, Temüjin's father, in 1171, the Khamog Mongols couldn't find another capable leader. So, they were in a constant state of political crisis for the next two decades. When Temüjin attacked the Merkits and rescued his wife, his reputation and fame rose rapidly. Therefore, the leading members of the Khamag Mongol aristocracy came to believe that Temüjin could be a good leader. Hence, in 1189, after Jamukha and Temüjin split, the Khamog Mongols elected him as their Khan.
Thus, Temüjin became Temüjin Khan. But Temüjin's aim was not just to become the Khan of the Khamog Mongols. It was to become the ruler of the entire Mongolian plateau. If that was not his aim before, it became his aim after the successful raid against the Merkits.
Temüjin Khan becomes Genghis Khan
At the dawn of the twelfth century, there were five major Mongolian tribal federations in the Mongolian plateau. They were the Tatars, the Merkits, the Naimans, the Keraites, and the Khamog Mongols. By 1189, Temüjin had become the Khan of the Khamog Mongols, had gained the Keraites as allies, and had subdued the Merkits.
The 5 Mongolian tribal federations (Ca. 1207A.D.) - By Khiruge - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Link
Thus, Temüjin Khan was steadily moving forward in his dream of ruling the Mongolian plateau. But Temüjin Khan's growth threatened Jamukha's rise to power. So, in 1190, Jamukha attacked Temüjin's camp with 30,000 men. In the ensuing fight, Temüjin was utterly defeated. However, Temüjin Khan somehow managed to escape capture. But many of his generals and his followers couldn't do the same.
Jamukha wanted to prevent anyone from allying with Temüjin Khan in the future. So, he boiled many of Temüjin Khan's generals and followers alive. But his approach backfired because it not only scared his enemies but also horrified his own followers. As a result, many of his own followers deserted him and joined Temüjin Khan a few years later.
After the defeat, Temüjin Khan swore never to be defeated again or to let his followers down. What happened to Temüjin Khan over the next few years is unclear.
Defeating the Tatars
As mentioned earlier, the Chinese kingdoms did not want the Mongolian nomadic tribes to become powerful. So, they constantly kept shifting their support from one tribe to another when one tribe became too powerful. In one such attempt, in the year 1197, the Chinese kingdom Jin attacked the Tatars, who were previously their allies. Tatars were Temüjin Khan's lifelong enemies and the ones who killed his father. So, Temüjin Khan wanted to take advantage of this opportunity to destroy the Tatars once and forever. Therefore, while the Tatars were engaged in war with Jin, Temüjin Khan, along with Toghrul, the Khan of the Keraite tribe who helped him rescue his wife, attacked the Tatars in the rear. In the ensuing fight, the Tatars were utterly defeated.
Defeating Jamukha
While Temüjin Khan was getting stronger, Jamukha was getting influential as well. In 1201, a meeting of the Mongol tribal leaders convened. In this meeting, the Mongol tribal leaders elected Jamukha as the universal leader of all the Mongol clans. Annoyed at this new development, Temüjin Khan decided to strike him. Jamukha, in turn, formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. However, several of Jamukha's allies deserted him and joined Temüjin Khan. As a result, Temüjin khan defeated Jamukha's army in the ensuing battle, despite suffering an arrow shot to the neck. But Jamukha himself escaped capture and fled.
Defeating the Keraites
Now, with Jamukha, the Tatars, and the Merkits defeated, the Keraites as his allies, the only big hurdle to Temüjin Khan was the Naimans. But before Temujin Khan could strike the Naimans, there was an unexpected enemy he had to face first.
Toghrul was an ally of Temüjin Khan and the Khan of the Keraites. Temüjin Khan and Toghrul were close. But Toghrul's son was jealous of Temüjin Khan's closeness with Toghrul and his rise to power. So, he persuaded Toghrul to kill Temüjin Khan. Even though Toghrul had been saved by Temüjin Khan several times in the past, he gave in to his son's persuasion. Together, they planned an ambush to kill Temüjin Khan in the wedding between Toghrul's daughter and Temüjin Khan's son. However, the Mongols learned of Toghrul's intentions and escaped.
Toghrul, who was afraid of Temüjin Khan's rising power, now sided with Jamukha. But at the same time, Toghrul was distrustful of Jamukha. After all, Jamukha had exiled Toghrul when he attacked Temüjin Khan a decade back. Moreover, several of their allies sided with Temüjin Khan. So, their coalition started to fail, and it became a big concern for Toghrul.
In 1203, when they were still distracted by the growing concerns over the collapse of their coalition, Temüjin Khan attacked the Keraites led by Toghrul and defeated them. However, Toghrul and Jamukha escaped capture and fled into the territory of the Naimans, another Mongol tribe. The Naimans were concerned about the rising power of Temüjin Khan too. So, they took Jamukha and his followers in. However, they failed to recognize Toghrul and hence, ended up killing him.
Defeating the Naimans
Now with four of the five big Mongolian tribes under his control, Temüjin Khan turned his attention towards Naimans. Even though the Naimans were strong, many of their allies sided with Temüjin Khan. So, in the ensuing war, Temüjin Khan won against the Naimans and a part of the remaining Merkits who sided with the Naimans.
However, Jamukha fled once again realizing that the Naimans were going to lose. But he was captured by his own men and turned over to Temüjin Khan. However, even though Jamukha had boiled Temüjin Khan's generals alive, Temüjin Khan showed mercy to his childhood friend. He killed the traitors who handed over Jamukha to him and offered his hand in friendship to Jamukha. But Jamukha didn't want to be Temüjin Khan's friend and asked for a noble death (without shedding blood) instead. So, Temüjin Khan executed Jamukha by having his back broken.
Uniting the Mongolian tribes
Thus, in the year 1204, Temüjin Khan vanquished all his enemies and became the strongest warrior and general in the Mongolian plateau. Two years later, he convened another meeting of the Mongolian chiefs, like the one Jamukha called in 1201. In this meeting, the Mongolian chiefs acknowledged Temüjin Khan as the Khan of all the Mongolian tribes. They gave him the title Chinggis Khan, which came to be known as Genghis Khan in the West. Thus, in 1206, Temüjin Khan became Genghis Khan, which probably meant, 'The universal ruler,' or 'The ruler of the oceans.'
When he was a kid, Temüjin couldn't even find food to feed his family. Yet, in his forties, he became Genghis Khan, the universal ruler of all the Mongols. His journey was beyond astonishing. But how could he do it? After all, Genghis Khan was not the only one who had the dream of becoming the king of all Mongols. Hundreds, if not thousands of tribal leaders who lived before him, had that dream. Yet, how was Genghis Khan able to achieve it?
Strategies that helped Temüjin Khan unite all the Mongolian tribes
Strategy I - Form powerful alliances
When Genghis Khan was a child, his tribe abandoned him after his father died. During those years, when his family was suffering from poverty, he learned an important lesson - "A man who seeks power needs friends with power." So, whenever possible, he made alliances that would give him an advantage in battles. This was the reason why he renewed his friendship with Jamukha and renewed his father's friendship with Toghrul instead of going after Börte on a whim. He also married the daughters of tribal chiefs to create alliances. But that wasn't the only strategy Genghis Khan used to become powerful.
Strategy II - Destroy enemies
Genghis Khan used another powerful strategy that made him the master of the Mongolian steppe. This strategy was never to give anyone the chance to stab him in the back. He did this by eliminating everyone who might become a future threat to him. Whenever he defeated an opponent, he did so thoroughly. He made sure none of the aristocrats, who could sow the seeds of future rebellion, were left alive. None of the tribal leaders who could stab him in the back were left alive. This was obvious from all of his tribal conquests.
When he defeated the Merkits, he killed their women and took their children as slaves. When he defeated the Tatars, he killed everyone who was taller than a cart axle. He then distributed their children among the Mongols so that they could grow up to become loyal Mongol followers. When he defeated the Keraites led by Toghrul, he dispersed their people among the Mongols to serve as soldiers and servants.
Thus, Genghis Khan broke the Mongolian tradition of looting and leaving after winning a battle, which gave the enemy a chance to grow powerful once again. Instead, he crushed the aristocrats and noble families of the defeated tribe to make sure no future rebellion could arise. Then, he redistributed the remaining people among his family and close relatives. In 1206, when he became the king of all Mongolian people, he redistributed thousands of families to be cared for by his relatives and companions. Thus, he destroyed the clan and tribal structure of the Mongols and created a feudal structure where citizens were loyal to him.
Strategy III - Reward loyalty
Moreover, he rewarded loyalty with honorable positions such as heads of army units regardless of the class of the individual. In addition to that, he also gave spoils of war to people who were loyal to him. Thus, he promoted loyalty and merit instead of favoring aristocrats and royal families. As a result, after every victory, Genghis Khan emerged stronger, more formidable, and unstoppable. It is the nature of human beings to choose the side that has the highest probability of winning, particularly when their lives are at stake. So, whenever he decided to fight against a powerful opponent, like Jamukha, Toghrul, and the Naimans, many of his opponent's supporters deserted them and joined him instead. Thus, often, Genghis Khan won battles even before they began.
Thus, now, Temüjin had become Genghis Khan. Still, he was only the leader of two million illiterate nomads. Unlike Julius Caesar or Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan didn't have an already powerful military state. He had only a collection of nomadic tribes, who had no permanent homes and had a long history of slaughtering one another. He did not have a strong capital city, no walls to defend him, and no siege weapons to fight against strong countries. Yet, in two decades, he converted his group of nomadic horsemen into an unstoppable juggernaut and conquered a larger area and greater population than the Romans could do in four centuries. How could Genghis Khan pull such a feat? Continue reading and find out.
Genghis Khan's Conquests
After Temüjin became Genghis Khan, he set about conquering other strong nations.
His conquest began with China. During Genghis Khan's time, China was ruled by three kingdoms - The Western Xia dynasty in the northwest, the Jin dynasty in the North and Northeast, and the Song dynasty in the south. Of these three kingdoms, the Mongols shared borders with the Western Xia dynasty and the Jin dynasty.
Mongolia, China and Qara Khitai (Ca. 1141A.D.) - By User:Ian Kiu - File:Sung Dynasty 1141.png, CC BY 3.0, Link
Defeating the Western Xia dynasty
The Mongols shared their western border with the Western Xia dynasty. Genghis Khan believed that defeating the Western Xia dynasty would give him a gateway to defeat the bigger Jin dynasty. So, he decided to attack the Western Xia dynasty first.
Challenge I - The Great Wall of China
The Western Xia dynasty emerged as an independent kingdom in the eleventh century. At the time of arrival of the Mongols, it even served as a vassal state for the Jin dynasty. But its relationship with the Jin dynasty was not so smooth. So, Genghis Khan predicted that if he attacked the Western Xia dynasty first, the younger Jin ruler Wanyan Yongji wouldn't interfere. Therefore, he went ahead and attacked the Western Xia dynasty. Just like he had predicted, Jin refused to come to Western Xia's aid when Western Xia asked them for help, even though Western Xia was a vassal state of Jin. But taking Western Xia was not an easy task. After all, for the first time, Genghis would be fighting against a fortified nation, protected by the Great Wall of China.
Genghis Khan knew that as long as the Great Wall of China stands, he wouldn't be able to defeat the Western Xia dynasty. At the same time, he also knew that he couldn't destroy the Great Wall of China without any siege weapons. So, instead of destroying it, he just took his troops around it and entered the Western Xia dynasty. Once inside, the Mongols were able to defeat several cities despite their initial difficulty in fighting against well guarded cities.
Challenge II - A well-fortified city
Finally, they arrived at the gates of Western Xia's capital city, which had a well-fortified garrison of 150,000 troops. Genghis Khan knew it would take a significant toll on his military if he fought those troops head-on. He wanted to force the city to surrender, instead. So, first, he feigned retreat and killed many of Western Xia's troops who fell for his act and followed him. Then, he tried to flood the city by turning the course of the Yellow River. But the dike they built for this purpose broke, and the river flooded the Mongol camps instead. But despite the failure of their plan, the king of Western Xia surrendered. He submitted to the Mongols as a vassal state and gave his daughter's hand in marriage to Genghis Khan.
Defeating the Jin dynasty
In 1211, after conquering Western Xia, Genghis Khan turned his attention to the Jin dynasty. The Jin dynasty had always been wary of their neighboring nomadic Mongol tribes. They knew, if these tribes united, it would become a big problem for them. So, the Jin dynasty adopted a divide-and-rule approach towards these tribes. They incited battles between different tribes and even shifted support between tribes to ensure none of the tribes got too powerful. They even extended The Great Wall of China by 300km along their border towards the Mongols. However, they missed their chance to destroy Temüjin Khan when he was a small chieftain, a mistake, for which they paid dearly.
In 1204, even before he became Genghis Khan, Temüjin Khan began attacking small villages of the Jin Dynasty in the border. He then incited these villages to convert to his side. However, the Jin ruler underestimated Temüjin Khan and the Mongols. He believed that the Mongols didn't stand a chance against Jin's military might. So, he did not strengthen his defenses against the Mongols.
Deciding to wage war against the Jin Dynasty
In 1210, the Jin dynasty sent an envoy to Genghis Khan, asking him to submit to them as a vassal state. Genghis Khan, however, spat on the ground and sent the envoy back, disagreeing to submit to the Jin dynasty. Genghis Khan's refusal to submit to the Jin dynasty as a vassal state was considered a declaration of war. When the Jin king heard how Genghis Khan had behaved, he sent Genghis Khan a message that read, "Our empire is as vast as the sea, yours is but a handful of sand. How can we fear you?"
The Jin king's message was a bold statement, but it was justified. At that time, the Jin dynasty was one of the Kingdoms in the world that was well-defended. Moreover, they had unimaginable wealth, an enormous army, and state-of-the-art weapons like gunpowder and catapults. In addition to that, they had the Great Wall of China. So he did not have to worry about the Mongols invading the Jin dynasty. After all, the Mongolian army was only an army of nomads that didn't even have any siege weapons.
In 1211, after conquering Western Xia, Genghis Khan summoned a military council of Mongolian chiefs. In that council, after consulting these Mongolian chiefs, Genghis Khan decided to attack the Jin dynasty with full force.
Challenge I - Beating an army that is 10 times bigger
Genghis Khan gathered an army of 100,000 men to attack Jin. He left only 2,000 men to guard his base in Mongolia. In response, Jin sent an army of 800,000 infantry and 150,000 elite cavalry. The Jin army outnumbered the invading Mongols by almost 10 to 1. Yet, their numerical advantage was lost because of the tactical mistakes that the Jin army committed.
For starters, they spread a part of their army thin so that most part of the Great Wall could be guarded. However, Genghis Khan broke through the Great Wall, where it was the weakest.
Behind that entry point was a mountain pass. Behind that pass, the Jin army's main unit of 400,000 men was waiting. They had spread out on mountainous terrain to obstruct the Mongolian cavalry. While riding up a mountain, the cavalry would lose the advantage against the infantry. So, it was to serve as a big advantage against the Mongols, whose specialty was mounted archery. However, instead of attacking the Mongols head-on, Jin's general sent a messenger to the Mongols to negotiate peace. But Genghis Khan was able to scare the messenger, who defected to the Mongol's side and revealed the Jin army's position. So, using that intel, the Mongols dismounted their horses, climbed the mountains on foot, and launched a concentrated attack on the Jin central army.
They were fighting on a mountain, and the Jin army was spread thin. So, the Jin central army could not communicate their status to the rest of the army. Thus the central army ended up being annihilated. After destroying the central army, the Mongols pursued the rest of the army and killed them too. What followed was a bloody murder, in which the Mongols killed thousands of Jin soldiers mercilessly and left dead bodies for a hundred miles.
Challenge II - Capturing a well-fortified city
After that battle, the Mongols laid waste to several cities of the Jin dynasty. Finally, they reached Jin's capital city Zongdu (present-day Beijing).
When he came to Beijing, Genghis Khan found another wall facing him. This wall, which surrounded Beijing, was 12-meter high and 16km long. Jin soldiers stood guard on it, waiting to throw molten metals, burning oil, and poison on the invading Mongols. Genghis Khan understood that Beijing was not a city that he could take by force. So, his army raided the countryside and sent refugees pouring into Beijing and other cities. Consequently, Beijing was faced with severe food shortages, and the population resorted to killing and eating each other. So, the Jin army had to kill tens of thousands of its own people.
Finally, in 1214, unable to hold out anymore, the Jin dynasty surrendered to the Mongols. The Mongols let Jin keep their capital city Zongdu. In return, the Jin ruler agreed to give the Mongols silver, gold, silk, warriors, and horses. After they made their agreement, the Jin king suddenly moved his capital to another city in the south, abandoning Zongdu. But Genghis Khan took the Jin emperor's action of moving his capital as a breach of the agreement. So, he ravaged Zongdu to the ground and killed all its inhabitants. For the next two decades, the Mongols kept invading weakened Jin further until Jin was completely destroyed in 1234.
Defeating Qara Khitai
The Qara Khitai was a kingdom in central Asia. After Genghis Khan defeated the Naimans in 1204, the Naiman prince Kuchlug fled to the neighboring kingdom of Qara Khitai. The ruler of Qara Khitai welcomed him with open arms. Eventually, the Naiman prince Kuchlug gained the trust of the king and rose in power, becoming an advisor, military commander, and the king's son-in-law. Then, he launched a coup d'etat, seized power, and when the king died in 1213, took control of the kingdom.
Mongolia, China and Qara Khitai (Ca. 1141A.D.) - By User:Ian Kiu - File:Sung Dynasty 1141.png, CC BY 3.0, Link
In 1218, Kuchlug attacked a city ruled by the grandson-in-law of Genghis Khan. So, annoyed, Genghis Khan sent 20,000 troops to take the city. Genghis Khan's troops defeated an army of 30,000 troops of the Qara Khitai kingdom. Then, it entered the city.
The majority of people in Qara Khitai were Muslims. Kuchlug had previously converted to Buddhism. So, he forced the people of Qara Khitai to convert either to Buddhism or Christianity. Therefore, the people of Qara Khitai ended up hating him. Taking advantage of this political unrest, the general of the attacking Mongols announced that if the city were to be ruled by Genghis Khan, they could follow any god they wanted to. Consequently, the people of Qara Khitai started supporting the invading Mongols and revolting against their own king. So, Kuchlug fled the country, and the kingdom of Qara Khitai came under Genghis Khan's rule.
Defeating the Khwarezmian Empire
With the kingdom of Qara Khitai now under their rule, the Mongols' borders expanded. So, the Mongols gained new neighbors to the west. One of these new neighbors was the Khwarezmian Empire (present-day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Iran), with which Genghis Khan wanted to establish trade relations. So, he sent a message to their ruler that read, "I am master of the lands of the rising sun while you rule those of the setting sun. Let us conclude a firm treaty of friendship and peace." The Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad of the Khwarezmian Empire agreed to his proposal.
A pre-mongol era map of Eurasia depicting the Khwarezmian Empire (Ca. 1200A.D.) - CC BY-SA 3.0, Link
Declaring war
At this point, Genghis Khan was involved in conquering the rest of the Jin dynasty. So, he had no interest in conquering the Khwarezmian Empire as it would cause heavy casualties. All he was interested in was profiting through trade. However, the Shah of the Khwarezmian Empire had heard how Genghis Khan had ravaged the Jin capital of Zhongdu and killed all its inhabitants. So, he was suspicious of Genghis Khan's true motives. Therefore, when Genghis Khan's caravan containing 500 people entered the Khwarezmian Empire, the governor of one of his cities arrested all the people in the caravan. The governor claimed that they were not traders but Mongolian spies.
When Genghis Khan learned of Khwarezmians' outrageous behavior, he sent three ambassadors to the Khwarezheim Empire. One of these ambassadors was a Muslim, and the other two were Mongols. Genghis Khan demanded that the caravan be set free and the governor be handed over for his actions. However, the Shah shaved the head of the two Mongols, cut the head of the Muslim, and sent the ambassadors back to Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan considered ambassadors sacred. So, the Shah's actions were taken as a personal insult to Genghis Khan. Therefore, in 1219, Genghis Khan went to war with the Khwarezmian Empire leading an army of 200,000 soldiers.
The Shah's great mistake I - Not having a united defense
The Shah of the Khwarezmian Empire had recently conquered several regions. So, he thought that the people and the soldiers of the newly conquered regions wouldn't be loyal to him. Therefore, he did not gather all his army in one place because he was afraid they might arrange a coup d'etat and overthrow him. However, it proved to be a deadly mistake because, without a united defense, the Shah couldn't respond effectively to Genghis Khan's attacks.
The Shah's great mistake II - Underestimating the Mongols' ability to learn and adapt
From the reports on Genghis Khan's attacks on Jin, the Shah knew that Genghis Khan had no siege weapons. This made it difficult for Genghis Khan to take fortified cities in the Jin dynasty. So, the Shah predicted that Genghis Khan would face difficulty in invading the cities in the Khwarezmian Empire too. However, Genghis Khan had adopted many technical advancements of the Jin military into his own military. As a result, he now had gunpowder. He also had siege weapons like catapults, battering rams, and siege bows that could fire 6m-long arrows into enemy siege weapons. Moreover, he had also brought Chinese men who were experts in siege warfare, medicine, and building bridges. Thus, the Shah's wrong prediction about Genghis Khan's army proved to be another fatal mistake in the war.
The Mongols' superior spy network
Genghis Khan had established an extensive network of spies, who were experts in gathering information. The Mongols often incorporated the information from their spies to change their war strategy. They never went to war without learning about their enemy's military might and their ability to resist. So, from the information they gathered about the Shah, they knew that the Shah was suspicious of his own military. Therefore, Genghis Khan first sent a group of assassins to kill the Shah. Hence, the Shah was forced to run for his life within his own country.
The superior strategies of Genghis Khan and the tactical mistakes made by the Shah turned the tides in favor of the Mongols. Therefore, the Mongols were able to strike down the divided armies of their enemies and defeat the Khwarezmian Empire. After six years, in 1225, the Mongol conquest of the Khwarezmian Empire was effectively over. But it changed the course of history completely.
Some of the most notorious Mongol atrocities in history were perpetrated during this conquest. Countless cities were turned to dust, and millions lay dead. But despite killing millions of people, Genghis Khan seems to have never regretted it. In response to the huge genocide he committed, he said, "I am the punishment of God. If you had not committed great sins, God would not have inflicted a punishment such as me upon you."
Death
The Xia dynasty had previously surrendered to the Mongols and agreed to be their Vassal state. So, before he set out for the war against the Khwarezmian Empire, Genghis Khan asked the Xia dynasty for help. However, the Xia dynasty refused to help, citing that if Genghis Khan needed the help of a vassal state to win a war, he was not fit to be the Supreme ruler anymore. This greatly annoyed Genghis Khan. So, when he returned after destroying the Khwarezmian Empire, he waged a second war against the Xia dynasty.
The Xia dynasty was eventually crushed by the Mongols. However, Genghis Khan himself did not live to see it. In 1227, during this war, Genghis Khan died. The circumstance that led to his death is not clear. But he most probably died either due to an arrow wound or because he fell from his horse. After his death, Genghis Khan was buried in an unknown location.
By the time he died, Genghis Khan had conquered more territory in his lifetime than any other person in history. His empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the Caspian Sea in the west. It was twice the size of the Roman Empire. But what made Genghis Khan and his Mongols so successful and intimidating to other kingdoms?
Strategies that helped Mongols become extremely formidable and successful
Strategy I - Be more skilled than the enemy
The Mongols were skilled horse-mounted archers. During their time, it was a military technology that was leaps ahead of their enemies. The Mongolians started training their sons in archery and horse-riding very early. For instance, Genghis Khan might have learned how to fire an arrow while riding a horse when he was just three years old. Moreover, the Mongols learned how to release their arrows just when all the hooves of their horse left the ground. By doing so, they achieved maximum accuracy. Thus, using a combination of accuracy, speed, and mobility, the Mongols became a force to reckon with.
Strategy II - Communicate effectively
Communication is the key to winning battles. The Mongols, who were shepherds for centuries, often wandered miles away from their tribes. So, they became experts at communicating over long distances. Many of their opponents lacked these skills. So, it was easier for the Mongols to change their strategy according to the battlefield and slowly corner their enemies.
Genghis Khan also established a vast communication network. One of the things that Genghis Khan did after becoming Genghis Khan was the creation of a courier service called 'Yam.' He created a well-connected series of post houses and way stations across the entire empire. The horseriders who delivered these posts could stop to rest or take a fresh horse from these stations every few miles. This made the horseriders extremely fast, making it possible for them to travel up to 200 miles every day. The Yam system allowed the transfer of goods and the movement of information at an unprecedented speed. This system worked as the eyes and ears of Genghis Khan. It helped him keep in touch with his extensive network of spies and enabled him to keep abreast of his enemy's political and military developments.
Strategy III - Know your enemy
The Mongols were experts at information gathering. Using their extensive network of spies, they got an accurate estimation of their enemy's defense and political situation. Then they used this information to predict their enemy's moves and create counter-strategies.
Strategy IV - Decieve your enemy
The deception was a major skill of the Mongols. They often used fake news to confuse their enemy. For example, once Genghis Khan launched a campaign to spread false information to confirm the Shah's suspicions of a coup d'etat by his subordinates, making him feel unsafe in his own empire and luring him to make wrong decisions on the battlefield. Feigning retreat was another master strategy of Genghis Khan. It often lured enemies out of their defensive positions to chase him, only to be decimated by Genghis Khan's troops. It was a strategy that proved effective against Jin's troops in Zhongdu.
Strategy V - Learn and adapt
Genghis Khan was also very adept at learning things quickly. When he attacked the Chinese empires of Xia and Jin, he had no siege weapons. But when he attacked the Khwarezmian Empire a few years later, he had already incorporated the Chinese siege weapons into his arsenal. He also had thousands of captured troops and Chinese experts in various fields to make his military multi-disciplinary and formidable.
Strategy VI - Spread absolute terror
The final strategy that Genghis Khan used was to spread absolute terror. The Mongol's best-case scenario was to capture a city without any loss of lives on their side. So, Genghis Khan destroyed cities and killed entire populations for putting up a fight against them. On the other hand, cities that surrendered were left to live. It was his way of saying, "Those who surrendered would be spared, those who did not surrender but opposed with struggle and dissension would be annihilated." This strategy led to the loss of almost 30 million lives in China. But it was very effective in dissuading resistance. Many cities surrendered immediately when they heard that the Mongols were coming.
Successors
The Mongol's conquests and lust for war did not end with Genghis Khan. His successors inherited his lust for war, conquering countries and laying siege to numerous cities.
Genghis Khan had four sons from his first wife - Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei, and Tolui. But Chagatai did not like Jochi, probably because he thought Jochi was not Genghis Khan's son. He even told his father that he would not follow Jochi if he became Genghis Khan's successor. Genghis Khan was sure that if he made Jochi his successor, it would cause an all-out-war among his sons. However, Chagatai was hot-headed. So, he couldn't choose him as his successor either. On the other hand, Tolui, being the youngest son, had the least importance in Mongolian custom. But Ögedei, his third son, was sensible, stable, and down-to-earth. So, Genghis Khan made Ögedei his successor. Then, he divided his empire into four parts and made each of his sons a Khan in their own right.
Facts you probably didn't know
- Genghis Khan never let anyone paint a portrait of him when he was alive. Therefore, nobody is sure how he looked like.
- In 1201, during a battle against a rival clan, a soldier shot an arrow at Genghis Khan's horse, nearly killing Genghis Khan. After he had won the battle, Genghis Khan asked the captured prisoners who fired that arrow. One of the prisoners stood up and bravely admitted that he was the archer who fired that arrow. Genghis Khan was impressed by the archer's boldness. So, he pardoned him and made him an officer in his army. Genghis Khan even nicknamed the archer as 'Jebe,' or 'arrow.' Jebe would go on to become one of Genghis Khan's famed generals and win several wars.
- Genghis Khan was responsible for the deaths of almost 40 million people.
- He let his people follow any religion they wanted.
- Genghis Khan created one of the first postal systems in the world.
- Genghis Khan developed written language, fair taxation, established a stable government, and open trade along the Silk Road.
- He had six Mongolian wives and more than 500 concubines. Historians estimate that 16 million men alive today are genetic descendants of Genghis Khan.
Did you like our biography of Genghis Khan? Then read the biographies of Abraham Lincoln and Che Guevara too.
